The Boykos are an ethnic group of highlanders of mixed Ruthenian-Volscian origin, settled in the Eastern Carpathians, living in a historical-ethnographic area called "Bojkowszczyzna," located on the slopes of the northern and southern Carpathians.
The origin of the name "Bojko" is not fully explained. The first known record of the term dates back to 1607, then it appears in the 19th century in the works of Vincent Pol. Some Ukrainian researchers link it to the name of the Celtic tribe Boii (Boj). Another version derives it from the name of ox and salt traders, since the word "bojko" was supposed to describe a kind of stubborn ox. Hence the nickname "bojko" was formerly thought to be used as an equivalent for a backward and primitive man. In the second half of the 19th century, under the influence of literature, the name became popular, undergoing a process of evolution from a nickname to an official name. The Boyko people themselves called themselves Hyrniaks or Verhovynets. Their language was formed under the great influence of Old Church Slavonic, as well as Polish, Slovak, Hungarian and Romanian. Religiously, the Boyko people mostly belonged to the Greek Catholic Church, less often to the Roman Catholic Church or the Orthodox Church.
According to the researchers' descriptions, the Boyko people were simple, even primitive, very poor, yet extremely pious. They lived in mountainous, infertile terrain, which was conducive to maintaining traditional forms of culture. The basis of their life was agriculture and herding. They raised sheep, cattle, pigs and fowl. They grew oats, rye, flax, hemp, potatoes and cabbage although, due to difficult soil conditions, yields were very modest. Until the turn of the 19th century, the area was run as an incandescent farm. The Boyko people also engaged in fruit growing and trade. Due to poverty, they were often forced to look for work outside of their homes. Men earned money logging, and also engaged in carpentry, wheelwrighting, cooperage and horse breeding. They were a fairly conservative people, as evidenced by their aversion to any change. They did not allow children to be vaccinated against smallpox, and opposed the construction of chimneys in huts. They isolated themselves from neighboring ethnic groups, hence were disliked and often despised by them.
The basic food of the Boyko people was crops and dairy products. Forest fruits and mushrooms were also frequently eaten, while meat was very rarely eaten. Meals were fairly simple, usually consisting of borscht cooked with rye flour or beets, potatoes with flour or cabbage, oatcakes and bread. All family members used one bowl.
Boyko construction was primarily single-building, combining both residential and farm parts under a common roof. The long and rather narrow cottages, known as chyzas, were built of fir wood and covered with a hipped straw roof. They usually consisted of a large room, a hallway, a chamber, a pitch and one or two stables. Next to the cottage was a hay brogue, sometimes a granary or well. The floor was clay polepa, and the walls were decorated with simple icons. A boiler used for heating water hung under the eaves. Metal candles filled with grease or kerosene were used to light the chamber. The interiors of Boyko huts were equipped with a table, several benches that served as beds and shelves on which clay and wooden dishes were placed. Stoves began to be introduced only in the interwar period, although even after the war many houses still did not have them. The chamber was used to store the most valuable items and food. The Boyko people established their settlements in the valleys of rivers and streams. Chain housing was used, so huts stretched in a long chain for up to several kilometers.
The spiritual life of the Boyko people was inextricably linked to the Orthodox Church. Despite their deep religiosity, they were an extremely superstitious people. Belief in ghosts, witches, good and evil powers and the afterlife was widespread. Their attachment to nature and occasional contact with the outside world meant that they were able to preserve the specific forms of their ancestral culture in a permanent and unchanging way.
Against the effects of evil powers, just in case, they took double protection - from the pop and the procurer, not forgetting the livestock as well. Since the weather had a very strong influence on the lives of farmers and shepherds great respect was given to weather commissioners, to whom tribute was paid in some villages. Boykins were helped by herbalists, who cured and summoned diseases. Medicine was also practiced by quacks, who, by fumigating the sick with smoke, uttered magical formulas and incantations. The spirits of the dead, especially suicides, were of particular concern, and the fairies and witches present in every village were seen as the source of all disease and misfortune. A cross placed at crossroads was supposed to protect against the effects of evil powers.
Among the most interesting "magical" rituals of the Boyko people are lighting a candle upside down in the Orthodox church, which was supposed to target thieves and other wicked people, and burying bread and salt on a neighbor's land, and after digging it up, giving this food to the cows to multiply the milk. The rituals and customs of this people concerned individual holidays and family celebrations. Funeral ceremonies were unique. The grave for the deceased was dug by all the village elders, and a cart or sleigh with the coffin was pulled by a pair of black oxen. The funeral procession was followed by a group of weepers.
On Christmas Eve, fasting reigned throughout the day. First thing in the morning, fasters came with their wishes. Women were not allowed to visit anyone or borrow anything from anyone, as this was a bad omen for the future. Twelve traditional dishes were prepared, and the decoration of the holiday table was a sheaf of grain. Each family ate from one bowl. Children found joy in searching for hazelnuts thrown to them by their parents.
St. Yuri's Day and Pentecost were widespread in the Boyko region. On St. Yuri's Day, the custom of dressing cattle with garlands was preserved, as it was believed that this would protect them from attack by wild animals, charms and spells. For cows and calves, garlands were woven from flowers, while for oxen and bulls - from beech branches and leaves. The festivities were accompanied by special ritual songs performed by shepherds.
Boykins as an ethnic group have passed into history. All news about them comes from witness accounts and research conducted by historians in the interwar period. In some mountainous areas one can still find traces of former buildings, Orthodox churches, cemeteries or other material forms testifying to their life and culture.
A remnant of Wallachian-Ruthenian settlement is the specific nomenclature. The terms of some topographical names are attributed to the ridges and peaks of mountains, streams, rivers and forests, while others testify to human activity.
The image of the former Boyko culture is wonderfully illustrated by the Folk Architecture Museum in Sanok. Walking along the alleys of the open-air museum, you can live for a while in a real Boyko settlement. See how the members of this group lived at that time, look into their homes and visit Orthodox churches.
Text: Joanna Radziewicz
Photo: wikipedia.pl - public domain
Photo: polona.pl - public domain
Sources:
1.Goetel, W.: Zagadnienia regjonalizmu górskiego w Polsce. Kraków: Wydawnictwo Związku Ziem Górskich, 1936.
2.Falkowski J., Pasznycki B.: Na pograniczu łemkowsko-bojkowskim. Lviv 1935.
3.www.lutowiska.pl
4.www.gimnazjumwczarnej.pl
